The Royal Ascetic，the Buddha as an ethical paradigm for the ruler，challenges the widespread idea that Buddhism is essentially monastic in nature，and that its political manifestations should attend chiefly to the relationship between state and clergy.Quite to the contrary，we have seen that around the turn of the Common Era the ruling elites of northwest India involve themselves in the religion mostly bypassing the agency of the monks，and that the Han court appears to have followed their example.
Next we explored a larger body of texts ostensibly produced within the monastic community，where the king features as a mere actant in narratives reflecting the aspirations and concerns of the clergy.This shift in Buddhist discourse might be seen as largely one from monarchic illocution to monastic perlocution，from utterances of the king as a Buddhist in his own right to the clergy＇s appeal to him.We have thus discovered that what is usually identified as the leading myth of kingship in early Buddhism，the doctrine of the cakravartin ruler，was in fact meant to stress the distance of Buddhism from secular ideas of sovereignty and its own self－reliance，paradoxically matching the negative，apprehensive outlook on the state reflected in the oldest layers of Buddhist literature.Outlandish narratives of the Flying Cakravartins of past ages were probably known in Chinese court circles，especially in the south，but they did not and could not convey any significant ideological impact.
The samgha did soon envisage a more positive attitude towards the monarch，and it should be a task of future scholarship to discern how room could be made in scripture for pious rulers such as Prasenajit side by side with texts that saw the king as mere disgrace，and likened him to bandits and natural misfortunes.Common sense suggests that we are dealing here with two different layers of early Buddhist literature，with the latter probably older than the former.
Finally，the legend of Asoka，which proved to be immediately successful in China after the first extended narratives were translated at the end of the 4th c.，would provide the Buddhist clergy with a powerful myth to engage this world as a leading actor.This was only the beginning of an eventful period in Chinese history，where the social and political arena had to reckon with a new，unexpected protagonist：the Buddhist monk.
Before and beyond him，however，Buddhism had been able to reach unmediated the ears and eyes of the Chinese ruler.It will probably improve our understanding of medieval Chinese Buddhism to acknowledge this much，and accordingly consider to what extent the fortunes of the Indian religion in China may have followed，beside its number of clerics and devotees，the appeal of its models of kingship.
References
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Ayu wang taizi Fayi huaimu yinyuan jing阿育王太子法益贵目因緣經（Scriptureonthe Causes of the Destruction of the Eyes of Law－Increasing［Dharmavardhana］，Grand Childe of King Asoka）.Translation by Zhu Fonian竺佛念（fl.383－413），completed on April 15，391，from an Indic text in 343 slokas recited by Dharmananda曇雪難提（fl.383－391）.T vol.50 no.2045.
Ayu?wang?zhuan阿育王傳（Account of King Asoka）.7 juan（Korean edition；the Song，Yuan and Ming editions and the edition of 1148 in the Library of the Imperial Household，Kunaishō宮內省，in Japan have 5 juan）；translation attributed to An Faqin安法欽（d.u.），a monk from Anxi安息（probably the former Parthian territories on the mid－course of the Amu－darya），in 306（Guangxi光熙era）；however，internal evidence assigns the translation to the second half of the 5th c.，probably ca.470.T vol.50 no.2042.
Bannihuan jing般泥洹經（Scriptureof the Parinirvāoa［Parinirvāoa－sūtra］）.2juan，anonymous translation；probably authored by Zhi Qian支謙（a.k.a.Zhi Yue支越，194／199－253／258）between ca.222 and 253.T vol.1 no.6.
Chang ahan jing常阿伊經（Long āgama Scriptures［Dirghāgama］）.22 juan，translated in 413 by Buddhayasas佛陀耶舍（fl.ca.350－413）and Zhu Fonian竺佛念（fl.383－413）.T vol.1 no.1.
Chu sanzang?ji?ji出三藏記集（Collection of Records on the Production of the Three Repositories）.15 juan，by Sengyou僧祐（445－518）.Juan 1，13，14，and 15 are taken from the original recension in 16 juan，released in early 503.Juan from 2 to 11 and the first section of juan 12 are taken from a revised edition in 10 juan，including only a bibliography，which was issued in late 515－early 516.The extant recension in 15 juan，including additional material by Sengyou in juan 12，was compiled between 695 and 730.T vol.55 no.2145.
Chuyao?jing出曜經（Scripture of the Appearance of［Sun］light［Ud（d？）āna］）.30 juan，translated in 399 by Samghabhadra（fl.382－399）and Zhu Fonian竺佛念（fl.383－413）.T vol.4 no.212.
Daoxing?banruo jing蹈行般若經（Praj?ā Scripture of the Practice of the Path）.10 juan.A translationof the Avtasāhasrikā－praj?āpāramitā sūtra，producedbyZhiChen支讖（＊Lokakvema，fl.168－185）with the Indian“Bodhisattva”Zhu Shuofo竺朔佛（var.竺佛朔）and Chinese assistants，starting（？）on 26 October 179（Guanghe光和2.10.8）.T vol.8 no.224.
Da zhuangyan?lun jing大莊嚴論經（Scripture of the Great Adorned Discourses）.15 juan.A Chinesetranslation ofthe Kalpanāmaoditikā Drvtāntapalkti（ASuccession of Examples Adorned by Fiction）by the Sarvāstivāda master Kumāralāta from Takvasilā，ca.300－320.Since 594，in Chinese catalogues the text is attributed to Asvaghova（Ch.Maming馬鳴，fl.early 2nd c.a.d.？）as author of the Indic original，and to Kumārajīva（Jiumoluoshi鳩雪羅什，ca.360－413）as translator.Possibly translated by Kumārajīva between 384 and 401.T vol.4 no.201.
Dun zhenduoluo suowen rulai sanmei jing伅真陀羅所問如來三昧經［Druma－kinnara－rāja－pariprcchā－sūtra］.3 juan，translated byZhi Chen支讖（＊Lokakvema，fl.168－185），although the received text shows departures from this translator＇s style.T vol.15 no.624.
Faju?piyu?jing法句譬喻經（Scripture of Parables on the Verses of the Law［＊Dharmapadāvadāna］）.4 juan，translated by the monks Faju法炬（d.u.）and Fali法立（d.before ca.308）between 290 and ca.308.T vol.4 no.211.
Fenbie gongde?lun分別功德論（Discourse on the Analysis of Merit）.5 juan.A commentary on the first four sections（pin品，Skr.vargas）of the Zengyi?ahan?jing增壹阿伊經（Ekottarikāgama）.Anonymous；probably written by Zhu Fonian竺佛念（fl.383－413），or someone close to him，between 384 and 404.T vol.25 no.1507.
Fu fazang?yinyuan?zhuan付法藏因緣傳（Account of the Causes of the Entrustment of the Repository of the Law）.6 juan，translated in 472 at Heng＇an恆安（near modern Datong大同，Shanxi）by the Indian monk Jijiaye吉迦夜（Srī－kāya？Kimkārya？d.u.）and the Chinese monk Tanyao曇曜（fl.ca.435－490），superintendent of the Buddhist clergy under the Northern Wei魏dynasty（386－534）.T vol.50 no.2058.
Gaoseng?Faxian zhuan高僧法顯傳（Account of the Eminent Monk Faxian）.Written by an anonymous monk at Jiankang，probably around 420，on the basis of a verbal report given by Faxian法顯（331／342－418／423）in 416.The title of the work in the Song，Yuan and Ming editions of the canon is“A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms”（Foguo?ji佛國記）.T vol.51 no.2085.
Gujin?yijing?tuji古今譯經圖紀（Records of Pictures of［the Masters］who Translated Texts in the Past and Present）.4 juan，compiled by the monk Jingmai靖邁（fl.645－664 ca.），completed in 664 or later.T vol.55 no.2151.
Hongming?ji弘明集（A Collection Propagating and Clarifying［Buddhism］）.14 juan，by Sengyou僧祐（445－518）.The received text derives from a recension edited after Sengyou＇s death，with major departures from the original plan.T vol.52 no.2102.
Hou Han?ji欢漢紀（Chronicle of the Later Han）30 juan，by Yuan Hong袁宏（330－378），completed ca.375.Liang?Han ji兩漢紀，vol.2.Beijing：Zhonghua shuju中華書局，2002.
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Jinglü?yixiang經律異相（Features from the Scriptures and the Discipline）.50 juan，compiled by Baochang纽唱（b.ca.466－d.after 517）and others on imperial order received in late 516.T vol.53 no.2121.
Kaiyuan?Shijiao?lu開元釋用錄（Catalogue of the Sākya Teaching［compiled］in the Kaiyuan Era）.20 juan，by Zhisheng智升（fl.700－740），730.T vol.55 no.2154.
Lidai sanbao?ji歷代三纽紀（Chronicle of the Three Jewels through the Ages）.15 juan，by Fei Zhangfang費常漳（fl.562－598）；completed on February 4，598.T vol.49 no.2034.
Liuchen zhu?Wenxuan六臣註文選（Selections of Literature，with glosses by six authors）.60 juan，compiled by Xiao Tong蕭統（501－531）；with glosses by Li Shan李善（completed ca.658）and others.Hangzhou：Zhejiang guji chubanshe浙江古籍出版社，1999.
Liudu ji?jing六度集經（Collected Scriptures on the Six Perfections）.8 juan，translated by Kang Senghui康僧會（d.280）.T vol.3 no.152.
San Guo?zhi三國志（Chronicle of the Three Kingdoms）.65 juan，by Chen Shou陳壽（233－297），completed after 284.Including a commentary by Pei Songzhi裴松之（372－451），which was presented to the throne on September 9，429.Beijing：Zhonghua shuju中華書局，1982.
Sengqieluocha?suoji?jing僧伽羅剎所集經（Scripture compiled by Samgharakva）.Attributed to Samgharakva（fl.early 2nd c.a.d.？）.Translation completed on March 6，385 by Zhu Fonian竺佛念（fl.383－413）from a text recited by Samghabhadra（fl.382－399）.T vol.4 no.194.
Shieryou?jing十二遊經（Scripture of the Twelve Wanderings［of the Buddha］）.1 juan，anonymous translation，probably late 4th c.T vol.4 no.195.
Shijia?pu釋迦譜（Registers of the Sākya）.5 juan，by Sengyou僧祐（445－518），compiled under the Southern Qi齊dynasty（479－502），most probably between 484 and 492.T vol.50 no.2040.
Taiping?yulan太平御覽（Imperial Reading of the Taiping Era）.1，000 juan，compiled by Li Fang李昉（925－996）and others，completed in 984.Beijing：Zhonghua shuju中華書局，1960.
Taizi ruiying?benqi?jing太子瑞應本起經（Scripture of the Auspicious Responses and Former Rise of the Grand Childe）.2 juan，translated by Zhi Qian支謙（a.k.a.Zhi Yue支越，194／199－253／258）between ca.222 and 253.T vol.3 no.185.
Wentuojie?wang?jing文陀竭王經（Scripture of King Mūrdhajāta）.Anonymous translation，probably late 3rd－early 4th c.；erroneously attributed to Dharmakvema（Tanwuchen曇無讖，385－433）.T vol.1 no.40.
Yiyue moni bao jing遺泄（曰）雪尼纽經［Kāsyapaparivarta］.Translated byZhiChen支讖（＊Lokakvema，fl.168－185）.T vol.12 no.350.
Za ahan jing雜阿伊經（Miscellaneous āgama Scriptures［Samyuktāgama］）.50juan，translated by Guoabhadra（Qiunabatuolo均那跋陀羅，398－464）in 435－436.T vol.2 no.99.
Za piyu?jing雜譬喻經（Scripture of Sundry Parables）.Anonymous translation，ca.320－400；it may have originally been a portion of T no.205.T vol.4 no.204.
Za piyu?jing雜譬喻經（Scripture of Sundry Parables）.2 juan.Anonymous translation，ca.320－400；it may have originally included the text of T no.204.T vol.4 no.205.
Zengyi?ahan jing增壹阿伊經（gama Scriptures in Progression by One ［Ekottarikāgama］）.51 juan，originally translated in 384－385 by Dharmananda曇雪難提（fl.383－391）and Zhu Fonian竺佛念（fl.383－413）；revised by Gautama Samghadeva（Qutan Sengqietipo瞿曇僧伽提［var.揥］婆，fl.384－398）in 397－398.The extant text is thought to correspond to Samghadeva＇s revision，but several sūtras are probably from the original translation of Dharmananda and Zhu Fonian.T vol.2 no.125.
Zhong ahan jing中阿伊經（Medium āgama Scriptures［Madhyamāgama］）.60juan.Translated in the Jiankang建康district by Gautama Samghadeva（Qutan Sengqietipo瞿曇僧伽提［var.揥］婆，fl.384－398），a monk from Kashmir，from a foreign text expounded by Samgharakva（Sengqieluocha僧伽羅叉，d.u.），also a monk from Kashmir，starting on December 15，397 and finishing on July 24，398；final revision of the text between 30 January 401 and 17 February 402（Long＇an隆安5）.This translation was meant to improve a previous one，now lost，by Dharmananda曇雪難提（fl.383－391）and Zhu Fonian竺佛念（fl.383－413）in 384－385.T vol.1 no.26.
Zhong?benqi?jing中本起經（Medium Scripture of the Former Rise［of the Bodhisattva］）.2 juan，translated by Kang Mengxiang康孟詳between 196－220.However，glosses in the extant recension indicate that it was edited under the Jin晉dynasty（266－420），probably in the 4th c.T vol.4 no.196.
Zhude futian?jing諸德福田經（Scripture on Virtues and Fields of Blessing）.Translated by the monks Faju法炬（d.u.）and Fali法立（d.before ca.308）?between 290 and ca.308.T vol.16 no.683.
＊
ALI，Daud
